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Assessment of δ-Aminolevulinic Acid in relation with Lead levels in Urine samples of Lead Exposed people Living Around Lead mine area of Odisha State, India

Lead poisoning was studied in a mining area of odisha. The study area taken is in between the radius of 5km. from the mining site. Villages taken for study are located approximately one Km distance of each other from core mining area. People of different age groups and sex living in different distances are considered for observation. It was found that the incidence of body lead burden is significantly higher in exposed area than the control area which is 10Km away from mining site. In this study the level of PbU and δ-ALAU is considered. The level of δ-ALA was measured to observe interference of lead in haem biosynthesis. The PbU level increases with increase in age up to 35years and slight decrease in PbU level is seen in the people aged above 35. The δ-ALAU level also increases with increase in age and decrease with increase in distance from the mining site. The level of δ-ALAU increases beyond normal above PbU level 10µg/lit.. A considerable increase in δ-ALAU level is seen in PbU level >30µg/lit.. In most of the cases the co-relation co-efficient ‘r’ value is above 0.5 with P<0.01. Increase in PbU level increases δ-ALAU level which shows lead interferes significantly with the formation of haem from protoporphyrin in blood, thus clearly indicates its toxic effect on human health.

Association of blood lead level with cognitive performance and general intelligence of urban school children in ten cities of India

Lead is toxic to children and effects the cognitive development. The primary objective was to assess the association of blood lead level (BLL) with cognitive performance and general intelligence, of urban school going children aged 6–16 years from ten cities of India. Secondary objective was to assess the association of anaemia with cognitive performance and general intelligence. Method: In this cross-sectional multicentric study, general intelligence was assessed by colored progressive matrices (CPM)/standard progressive matrices (SPM) test, visual-spatial ability through coding, attention and concentration ability through digit span and working memory through arithmetic tests. Blood samples of participants were collected to assess lead levels. Socioeconomic status and anthropometric measures were also collected. Results: From April 2019–February 2020, 2247 participants with equal gender distribution were enrolled from 60 schools. The median (IQR) BLL was 8.8 (4.8, 16.4) μg/dl. We found that BLL was significantly associated with attention and concentration ability and 1 μg/dl increase in BLL decreases the performance by odds of 1.02 (95 % CI 1.01–1.03). Anaemia is found to be associated with ‘borderline or dull normal’ performance for general intelligence [Adjusted Odds Ratio (AOR) = 1.93 (95 % CI 1.53–2.45)], visual-spatial [AOR = 1.35 (95 % CI 1.03–1.76)], attention and concentration [AOR = 1.30 (95 % CI 1.02–1.66)], working memory [AOR = 1.69 (95 % CI 1.34–2.12)] abilities. Conclusion: Since increasing BLL decreases cognitive performance and anaemia decreased both cognitive performance and intelligence, attempts must be made to keep BLL as low as possible and prevent exposure in school going children.

Biological Monitoring of Exposure to Inorganic Lead in Pregnant Women of Meerut City (Uttar Pradesh), India

This study was conducted to monitor lead poisoning, if any, in pregnant women of Meerut City, a town of Northern India. The parameters selected included urinary concentration of lead and 𝛿-aminolevulinic acid. Further, whole body oxidative stress caused by environmental lead exposure has also been determined through urinary concentration of thiobarbituric acid Reactive Substances (TBARS). Present results show that lead concentration in pregnant women (26-30 years) was higher (52±0.01 µg/dL) than younger (20-25 years) (40±0.01 µg/dL) and older (31-40 years) (43±0.01 µg/dL) women. Further, highest concentration of 𝛿-aminolevulinic acid in urine (2.60±0.55 mg/l) was also recorded in the pregnant women aged between 26-30 years. Women in the age group of 20-25 years and consuming non-vegetarian diet showed comparatively higher values for TBARS (5.56±0.6 µM). Higher concentration of lead in the urine samples of pregnant women than non-pregnant women is attributed to calcium stress and its increased release from bones during pregnancy. It is concluded that pregnant women of north India and their growing fetuses are more vulnerable to environmental lead poisoning

Blood lead in pregnant women in the urban slums of Lucknow, India

Objectives: To determine the concentrations of blood lead (PbB) in pregnant women in the slums of Lucknow, north India.
Methods: Of the 203 designated municipal slums in Lucknow, 70 were randomly selected for study and a cohort of 500 pregnant women was enrolled. Each participant was interviewed with questions on possible sources of exposure to lead, surrogates of nutritional status were measured, and PbB was measured.

Results: The mean PbB was 14.3 micrograms/dl and 19.2% of women had PbB > or = 20 micrograms/dl. PbB was not associated with age, height, weight, gestation, or history of abortions, although higher PbB was associated with higher parity. Women living inner city neighbourhoods near heavy vehicular traffic had PbB 2.2 micrograms/dl higher (95% confidence interval (95% CI) 0.8 to 3.6) than those living in other neighbourhoods. The PbB was not associated with reported use of piped water or the presence of paint in homes, and increasing PbB was unexpectedly associated with decreasing use of eye cosmetic “surma” and the duration of gestation.

Conclusions: The high PbB found in this population raises concern about fetal development and points to the urgent need to reduce exposure to lead.

Blood lead level in school going children of Jodhpur, Rajasthan, India

Lead exposure in children contributes to 600,000 new cases of intellectual disabilities every year with maximum occurrence in developing countries. Currently limited information is available on the blood lead level (BLL) in children of India. The aim was to estimate BLL in the school going children of local population of Jodhpur. Methods: Four hundred twenty-six primary school children of government and private schools participated in this cross-sectional study. Information regarding possible lead exposure was collected. BLL was estimated on Lead Care II analyser (Magellan Diagnostics, USA). Results: The mean and median BLL were 4.25 ± 1.75 μg/dL (<3.3–22.6 μg/dL) and 3.5 μg/dL (Inter Quartile Range 0.9). BLL was higher in children of illiterate mothers, those residing near dense traffic areas, urban regions and studying in government schools of urban regions. Conclusions: BLL in children residing in Jodhpur is much higher in comparison to western counterparts. Screening and awareness programs regarding potential sources of lead exposure can help in improving BLL.

Blood Lead Levels in Children Living Near an Informal Lead Battery Recycling Workshop in Patna, Bihar

Lead can cause significant biological and neurologic damage, even at small concentrations, and young children are at higher risk. Informal recycling of lead batteries and lead-based workshops/industries have increased the burden of lead toxicity in developing countries, including India. Many informal recycling lead battery workshops have been established by the local people of Patna, Bihar as self-employment opportunities. However, most of the residents are not aware of the risk factors associated with lead poisoning.
Objectives. The present pilot study aimed to assess blood lead levels (BLLs) and hemoglobin levels among children aged between 3 to 12 years in the settlement of Karmalichak near Patna, India.

Materials and Methods. Children residing near the informal lead battery manufacturing unit were selected for BLL assessment. A total of 41 children were enrolled in the questionnairebased survey.

Results. All the children in the present study had detectable lead concentrations in their blood. Only 9% of the studied children had a BLL ≤5 μg/dl, while 91% children had a BLL above >5 μg/dl.

Conclusions. The present study carried out in children of Karmalichak region of Patna, India was an attempt to better understand the problem of lead toxicity, describe the epidemiology of its adverse effects, identify sources and routes of exposure, illustrate the clinical effects and develop strategies of prevention so that remedial measures may be taken by government agencies and regulatory bodies. In view of the high lead levels in children in the study area, attempts are being made to develop strategies for future prevention by relocating the informal battery recycling workshops from the area. Moreover, parents have been advised to increase nutritional supplementation of children by providing calcium-, iron- and zinc-rich foods, including milk and vegetables.

Blood lead levels in pregnant women and their newborn infants at an Indian teaching hospital

In this study, we evaluated the blood lead levels of pregnant women and their birth outcomes attending an Indian tertiary care teaching hospital, those who were not exposed to any lead-associated industry or shops.

Blood samples from 104 mothers during the 1st trimester, 90 mothers during 3rd trimester, and from the umbilical cord were collected. Self-administered questionnaires were used to collect information on demographics, medical history, and concerns linked to pregnancy. Following acid digestion, the levels of lead in whole blood were determined by an atomic absorption spectrometer. The DNA damage in high blood lead-concentrated pregnant women was evaluated by comet assay methods.

Among 194 blood samples of pregnant women, 31 (15.98%) samples revealed ≥5 μg/dL blood lead levels. High lead concentration (≥5 µg/dL) in 1st trimester pregnant women, end of 3rd trimester and cord blood were detected 20.19%, 11.11% and 1.11% respectively. The mean blood lead levels in 1st trimester, 3rd trimester, and cord blood were 3.88 ± 3.19, 2.66 ± 1.82, and 1.53 ± 1.06 mg/dL, respectively. The blood lead concentrations were significantly higher in the 1st trimester of pregnancy than in the 3rd trimester of pregnancy (P < 0.0017). A positive correlation between maternal and infant blood lead levels was revealed (P < 0.0001). When the comet assay was used to assess the genotoxic consequences of elevated blood lead levels during pregnancy, higher amounts of DNA damage were found in the samples (P < 0.01). In this descriptive study, there was a significant amount of lead transferred from mother to baby through the placenta. All mothers were not exposed to lead-associated industry and most were housewives. This article may be viewed as an eye-opener for understanding the blood lead concentration during pregnancy to avoid abnormal birth outcomes. To minimize exposure to environmental lead, all possible measures should be undertaken.

Childhood Correlates of Blood Lead Levels in Mumbai and Delhi

Lead exposure has previously been associated with intellectual impairment in children in a number of international studies. In India, it has been reported that nearly half of the children have elevated blood lead levels (BLLs). However, little is known about risk factors for these elevated BLLs.

Methods: We conducted a retrospective cross-sectional analysis of data from the Indian National Family Health Survey, a population-based study conducted in 1998-1999. We assessed potential correlates of BLLs in 1,081 children who were < 3 years of age and living in Mumbai or Delhi, India. We examined factors such as age, sex, religion, caste, mother's education, standard of living, breast-feeding, and weight/height percentile. Results: Most children (76%) had BLLs between 5 and 20 ug/dL. Age, standard of living, weight/height percentile, and total number of children ever born to the mother were significandy associated with BLLs (log transformed) in multivariate regression models. Compared with children < 3 months of age, children 4?11 and 12-23 month of age had 84 and 146% higher BLLs, respectively (p < 0.001). A low standard of living correlated with a 32.3% increase in BLLs (p = 0.02). Children greater than the 95th percentile for their weight/height had 31% (p = 0.03) higher BLLs compared with those who were below the 5th percentile for their weight/height. Conclusions: Our study found various factors correlated with elevated BLLs in children. The correlation between greater than the 95th percentile weight/height and higher BLL may reflect an impact of lead exposure on body habitus. Our study may help in targeting susceptible populations and identifying correctable factors for elevated BLLs in Mumbai and Delhi.

Environmental Lead Exposure among Children of Industrial Belts in Jharsuguda: An Observational Study

Children are more susceptible to lead (Pb) toxicity than adults as exposures to environmental pollutants during windows of developmental vulnerability in early life can cause disease and death in infancy and childhood.
Objective:The current study aims to assess lead exposure in children in the industrial belt of Jharsuguda.
Materials and Methods: This observational study with a comparator group was conducted between May 2019 to April 2020. This study assessed the BLLs of a cohort of 251 children attending the pediatrics outpatient department in Government medical, Jharsuguda, and 175 comparators within the age group 1 to 13 years. Experimental subjects from medical records were analyzed through a complete screening, demography, and health examination. For industrial exposure analysis, contaminants in soil samples collected from 9 sampling sites and BLL were analyzed by AAS and US EPA methods. It will assist in policy making regarding safe disposal of lead and prepare strategy for better health and sanitation for the local community. Chi-square test, one-way ANOVA, Odds ratio (OR) and Pearson correlation coefficient were used.

Results: Analysis of 251 study participants revealed males (157 / 62.5%) dominated over females (94 / 37.5%) with M: F 1.6:1. A statistically significant association was found between anemia and the study group (OR with 95% CI: 3.49, 2.32, 5.26; p < 0.001); good negative correlation (‘r’- 0.616, p < 0.001) was found between blood lead and soil lead levels. The highest concentration of lead (Pb) was observed at wastewater irrigated sites during the post-monsoon period than monsoon and lowest in the pre-monsoon period (p < 0.001). Conclusion: Childhood lead poisoning accounts for a substantial burden in Jharsuguda resulting in various health impacts that can be prevented.

Erythrocyte Protoporphyrin as an Indicator to Lead Exposure Around a Lead Mine Area

The study investigates lead poisoning around a lead mine in Odisha. Blood Lead Levels (PbB) and Erythrocyte Protoporphyrin (EP) were analyzed in males of different age groups living at varying distances from the mine. PbB and EP levels increased with proximity to the mine, with PbB levels exceeding recommended limits for children within a 1 km radius. The study highlights significant toxic effects of lead exposure, particularly on hem synthesis, and provides evidence of a correlation between PbB and EP levels.

Heavy Metal Contamination of Groundwater in Guwahati City, Assam, India

Heavy metal contamination of the groundwater in Guwahati city was assessed for their Cd, Pb, Fe and As contents. 27 groundwater samples were analysed using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer and the levels of the four heavy metals were compared to the WHO specified maximum contaminant levels. According to WHO, the Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL) for Cd is 0.003 mg/L, while for Pb and As are both 0.01 mg/L (or 10 mg/L), and for Fe permissible limit is 0.3 mg/L. From the results obtained, it was found that out of the 81.48% samples where Cd was present, all of them had Cd content above MCL. Out of the 100% samples where Pb was present, only 22.22%samples had Pb content just within MCL in the wet season, and only 7.4% within MCL in the dry season. Only one sample had Pb content below MCL in the dry season. 62.96% samples had Fe content above the WHO permissible limit in wet season, while 92.59% had it above the limit in dry season. Out of the 70.37% samples that had As content presentin wet season and 81.48% in dry season, all of the values were found to be below MCL in both seas

Heavy Metal Contamination of Tree Leaves

The study of heavy metal (HMs) contamination of environment is of great interest due to their serious health hazard. In this work, the contamination of tree leaves with the HMs in the most polluted industrial city, Korba, India is described. The leaves of common trees i.e. Azadirachta indica, Butea monosperma, Eucalyptus, Ficus religiosa, Mangifera indica and Tectona grandis were selected for assessment of the HMs contamination as bioindicator. The elevated concentration of HMs (i.e. As, Fe, Cr, Mn, Cu, Zn, Cd, Pb and Hg) in the tree leaves was observed, ranging from 2.8 – 43, 728 – 5182, 8.6 – 49, 48 – 1196, 43 – 406, 79 – 360, 1.12 – 1.65, 1.6 – 16.4 and 0.13 – 0.76 mg/kg, respectively. The concentration, enrichment and sources of the HMs in the leaves are described. Azadirachta indica leaves, accumulating higher concentration of the HMs, showed a higher efficiency as bioindicator for the urban pollution.

Heavy Metal Load of Soil, Water, and Vegetables in Peri-Urban Delhi

Peri-urban lands are often used for production of vegetables for better market accessibility and higher prices. But most of these lands are contaminated with heavy metals through industrial effluents, sewage and sludge, and vehicular emission. Vegetables grown in such lands, therefore, are likely to be contaminated with heavy metals and unsafe for consumption. Samples of vegetables i.e., spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.) and okra (Abelmoschus esculentus L.); soil and irrigation water were collected from 5 peri-urban sites of New Delhi to monitor their heavy metal loads. While heavy metal load of the soils were below the maximum allowable limit prescribed by the World Health Organization (WHO), it was higher in irrigation water and vegetable samples. The spinach and okra samples showed Zn, Pb and Cd levels higher than the WHO limits. The levels of Cu, however, were at their safe limits. Metal contamination was higher in spinach than in okra. Spatial variability of metal contamination was also observed in the study. Bio-availability of metals present in soil showed a positive relationship with their total content and organic matter content of soil but no relationship was observed with soil pH. Washing of vegetables with clean water was a very effective and easy way of decontaminating the metal pollution as it reduced the contamination by 75 to 100%.

Kinetics of Lead and Bio-concentration Factor (BCF) in Different Tissues of Clarias batrachus During Experimental Plumbism.

A Common Indian cat fish, Clarias batrachus Linneaus was treated with Lead Acetate for sub-acute and chronic exposure to the xenobiotic. The sub acute study included 3 days and 7 days exposure to different concentrations of lead acetate, while chronic study included exposure to 15 ppm lead acetate for 105 days. In all the cases tissues from Gills, Bones, Liver, Blood, Kidneys, Muscles, Skin and GI tract were removed and analyzed by AAS to find lead accumulation. The Bio-Concentration Factor (BCF) was calculated .The BCF varies from organ to organ. Additionally , X-rays photography was made on the chronic treated fishes from time to time, to see whether skeletal tissue is a target of the heavy metal or not. The Co-relation Co-efficient ( r’) in these tissues between Lead treatment and Lead accumulation was found to be highly significant suggesting it both as a dose-dependent and time-dependent process.

Prevalence of elevated blood lead levels and risk factors among children living in Patna, Bihar, India 2020.

Childhood lead exposure remains a key health concern for officials worldwide, contributing some 600,000 new cases of intellectually disabled children annually. Most children affected by high exposure to lead live in low- and middle-income countries. The leaded gasoline phase out in India was completed in 2000. Yet, in 2020, an estimated 275 million children aged 0 to 9 years had blood lead levels (BLLs) over 5 μg/dL known to adversely affect intelligence and behavior. Lead sources reported in India include spices, cookware, paint, traditional medicines and cosmetics, and lead-acid battery recycling and repair. However, their relative contribution has not been characterized. More than 200 lead pollution sites related to battery recycling and repair activities were identified in Bihar and Jharkhand, India. Ninety percent of the recycling sites had soil lead concentrations exceeding the US Environmental Protection Agency’s standards. We compared blood and environmental lead levels in two groups of children in Patna, Bihar. Households in proximity to battery recycling operations (Proximal n = 67) versus households distal to these operations (Distal n = 68). The average age of children was 40 months; 46% were female. Overall, the geometric mean (GM) BLL was 11.6 μg/dL. GM BLLs of children in Proximal and Distal households were not significantly different (10.2 μg/dL vs. 13.1 μg/dL respectively; p0.07). About 87% children, 56 Proximal and 62 Distal had BLLs >5 μg/dl. Lead concentrations in environmental samples were significantly higher in Proximal households (soil mean 9.8 vs. 1.6 μg/ft2; dust mean 52.9 vs. 29.9 μg/ft2 p<0.001; Proximal vs. Distal respectively) whereas concentrations in all spices were higher in Distal households (mean 46.8 vs 134.5 ppm p<0.001; Proximal vs. Distal respectively), and turmeric (mean 59.4 vs. 216.9 ppm Proximal vs. Distal respectively). In multivariate analyses for all children, lead in spices and turmeric and number of rooms in the house were significant while for the Proximal group only lead in spices remained in the model. The predictive value of these models was poor. For the Distal group, a model with lead concentration in spices, turmeric and soil and number of rooms in the house was a much better fit. Of the 34 water samples collected, 7 were above the Indian standard of 10 ppb for lead in drinking water (2 in the Proximal area, 5 in the Distal area). Children in Patna, Bihar, India are exposed to multiple sources of lead, with lead levels in house dust and loose, locally sourced spices the most likely to increase blood lead levels. A holistic approach to blood lead testing and source identification and remediation are necessary to prevent lead exposure