Lead (Pb) is of major environmental concern due to its toxicological importance. The anthropogenic emission of Pb is at least 100 times higher than natural emissions. Soil and dust are significant sources of Pb exposure. Lead is generally immobile in soil and accumulates in the upper layers. Lead particles may enter homes via shoes, clothes, pets, and windows. Central India is rich in deposits of natural resource materials such as coal, pyrite, dolomite, and alumina that contain Pb and other heavy metals at the trace levels, and the substantial exploitation of these materials has tended to increased contamination of water and geological formations. Here we present data on Pb concentrations in the water, soil and sediment samples (n=158) collected from 70 locations in Chhattisgarh state, Raipur region. Lead concentrations in the surface water (n=44), groundwater (n=44), soils (n=60) and sediments (n=10) ranged from 6 to 1410, 3 to 52, 12.8 to 545, and 31 to 423 microg g(-1), with mean values of 305, 16, 102 and 190 microg g(-1), respectively. Most of the Pb fractions of >80% can be leached out with the chemical extractants EDTA, acetic acid, and hydroxylamine hydrochloride. Lead has accumulated in the soil clay fraction due to its relatively large surface area and decreases with increasing depth in the soil profile.
The present study includes a systematic analysis of bed sediment contamination by heavy metals of the Mahananda River flowing through Seemanchal zone of Bihar, India. To assess the spatial distribution, degree of contamination and risk assessment of heavy metals, seven selected metals were examined from the freshly deposited river sediment. The heavy metal concentration in the sediments ranged from 49.51-82.78, 83.64-141.68, 121.34-198.67, 41.28-83.43, 245.67-423.64, 0.53-1.05 and 17.91-29.62 mg kg-1 for Cu, Zn, Cr, Ni, Mn, Cd and Pb respectively. Highest concentration of heavy metals was found in the sediment of river especially, midstream and downstream. According to degree of contamination and pollution load index assessment, heavy metals pollution was highest in the sediment of downstream and lowest in upstream of River. Geo-accumulation indices showed that sediment was uncontaminated to moderately contaminate and may adversely affect the fresh water ecology of the river. Metal enrichment factor (EF) for all sampling stations was recorded 2 – 8. The exceptionally high EF value was observed for Cd (6.32-7.68) at all sampling stations. The mean ecological risk factor (Ei r) values were found below 40 except Cd (Ei r = 75.2) and average potential ecological risk index (PERI) value (99.35) of the combined heavy metals showed that the metals in the sediment of River in the Seemanchal zone caused low potential ecological risk overall. Based on the comparison of heavy metals concentration with the consensus-based sediment-quality guidelines Ni and Cr are likely to result to the deleterious effect on bottom-dwelling organisms. Our findings also suggest that 33.3% of sediment samples have mean probable concentration quotients (m-PEC-Q) values in between 0.1 – 1, indicating moderate toxicological risks for sediment dwelling organisms, with a toxicity incidence of between 15 – 29% in the study areas. Positive correlation was recorded among Cu, Zn, Pb, Ni, and Cr indicated common pollution sources or identical geochemical behaviour for these metals. Therefore proper management is required to control the direct dumping of wastewater and wastes in the river and continuous monitoring, and cleanup operation is suggested to minimize pollution.
In the present study, pollution evaluation indices were carried out to assess the intensity of pollution in Marar industrial area of Ramgarh in Jharkhand. Fifteen groundwater samples were collected from the study area in May 2016. The physicochemical parameters (pH and EC,, HCO3−, Cl−, SO42-, NO3−, F−, Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, K+) and heavy metals (Fe, Mn, As, Zn, Cu, Cr, Ni, Se, Al, Ba, Pb and Cd) were analysed. Measured concentration of heavy metals in the study area in decreasing order is as follows: Fe> Zn> Mn > Al> Ba > Ni> Cu > Pb> Cr > Se> As > Cd. Fe concentration was found beyond desirable limit in each sample. In the study area 73%, 60% and 21% water samples surpass desirable limit of Al, Mn and Ni respectively as per BIS,10,500 (2012). Concentration of As, Cu, Cr, Se, Pb, Ba and Cd was within the desirable limit in each sample. The analysed data was then applied for the calculation of Heavy Metal Pollution Index (HPI), Heavy Metal Evaluation Index (HEI) and Degree of Contamination (Cd). HPI values have not surpassed the critical value of 100 in any of the sample despite of various industrial activities. Fe is the prominent contributor for all the three pollution indices followed by Ni, Cr, Pb, Cu and Mn. According to multiple of mean value approach 100%, 93% and 80% of the samples belong to low and medium classes of HEI, HPI, and Cd respectively. Cluster analysis results advocate that heavy metal concentration in groundwater resources are contributed by both lithogenic as well as anthropogenic inputs such as large number of ferro alloys, non-ferrous alloys, sponge iron, foundry, instrument manufacturing and welding industries in the study area.
Background
While modeled estimates and studies in contaminated areas indicate high lead exposure among children in Bihar, India, local data on lead exposure in the child population is limited.
Objectives
To characterize lead exposure, and assess potential sources of lead exposure among a state-representative sample of children and their pregnant mothers residing in Bihar.
Methods
Blood samples were collected from 697 children under five and 55 pregnant women from eight districts in Bihar. Blood lead levels were determined using capillary blood and a portable lead analyzer. Household demographics, home environment, behavior, and nutrition information were collected through computer-assisted personal interviews with primary caregivers. Logistic regression was used to assess associations between potential risk factors and elevated blood lead levels.
ResultsMore than 90% of children and 80% of pregnant women reported blood lead levels ≥5 μg/dL. Living near a lead-related industry and pica behavior of eating soil were significantly associated with increased odds of having elevated blood lead levels. Additional risk factors for having a blood level ≥5 μg/dL included the use of skin lightning cream (aOR = 5.11, 95%CI: 1.62, 16.16) and the use of eyeliners (aOR = 2.81, 95%CI: 1.14, 6.93). Having blood lead levels ≥10 μg/dL was also significantly associated with the household member who had an occupation or hobby involving the use of lead (aOR = 1.75, 95%CI: 1.13, 2.72).
DiscussionElevated blood lead levels were prevalent among children and pregnant women in Bihar, indicating the urgent need for a comprehensive lead poisoning prevention strategy.
Lead poisoning was studied in a mining area of odisha. The study area taken is in between the radius of 5km. from the mining site. Villages taken for study are located approximately one Km distance of each other from core mining area. People of different age groups and sex living in different distances are considered for observation. It was found that the incidence of body lead burden is significantly higher in exposed area than the control area which is 10Km away from mining site. In this study the level of PbU and δ-ALAU is considered. The level of δ-ALA was measured to observe interference of lead in haem biosynthesis. The PbU level increases with increase in age up to 35years and slight decrease in PbU level is seen in the people aged above 35. The δ-ALAU level also increases with increase in age and decrease with increase in distance from the mining site. The level of δ-ALAU increases beyond normal above PbU level 10µg/lit.. A considerable increase in δ-ALAU level is seen in PbU level >30µg/lit.. In most of the cases the co-relation co-efficient ‘r’ value is above 0.5 with P<0.01. Increase in PbU level increases δ-ALAU level which shows lead
interferes significantly with the formation of haem from protoporphyrin in blood, thus clearly indicates its toxic effect on human health.
Lead is toxic to children and effects the cognitive development. The primary objective was to assess the association of blood lead level (BLL) with cognitive performance and general intelligence, of urban school going children aged 6–16 years from ten cities of India. Secondary objective was to assess the association of anaemia with cognitive performance and general intelligence. Method: In this cross-sectional multicentric study, general intelligence was assessed by colored progressive matrices (CPM)/standard progressive matrices (SPM) test, visual-spatial ability through coding, attention and concentration ability through digit span and working memory through arithmetic tests. Blood samples of participants were collected to assess lead levels. Socioeconomic status and anthropometric measures were also collected. Results: From April 2019–February 2020, 2247 participants with equal gender distribution were enrolled from 60 schools. The median (IQR) BLL was 8.8 (4.8, 16.4) μg/dl. We found that BLL was significantly associated with attention and concentration ability and 1 μg/dl increase in BLL decreases the performance by odds of 1.02 (95 % CI 1.01–1.03). Anaemia is found to be associated with ‘borderline or dull normal’ performance for general intelligence [Adjusted Odds Ratio (AOR) = 1.93 (95 % CI 1.53–2.45)], visual-spatial [AOR = 1.35 (95 % CI 1.03–1.76)], attention and concentration [AOR = 1.30 (95 % CI 1.02–1.66)], working memory [AOR = 1.69 (95 % CI 1.34–2.12)] abilities. Conclusion: Since increasing BLL decreases cognitive performance and anaemia decreased both cognitive performance and intelligence, attempts must be made to keep BLL as low as possible and prevent exposure in school going children.
In utero exposure to toxic metal substances can cause severe neurodevelopmental deficits in developing fetus and infant.
Methods
We evaluated the association of newborn umbilical cord blood lead concentration with early neurodevelopmental performance (cognitive, receptive language, expressive language, fine motor, gross motor and social-emotional development). The Bayley Scale of Infants Developments-III (BSID-III) was used to perform neurodevelopment outcomes at an average age of 6.5 months. In this prospective study, total of 167 mother-child pairs were enrolled from Western Rajasthan, India. Association between risk factors of lead contamination and newborn umbilical cord blood lead levels was observed. Multivariate regression was performed to see the association of cord blood lead level with infant neurodevelopment outcome.
Results
The obtained newborn umbilical cord blood lead concentration 5.0–10.5 μg/dL was negatively associated with the sub-scale score of gross motor development (β-coefficient with 95 % CI; −0.29 (−5.0–0.11), p = 0.04). However, no associations were found with the score of cognitive, language, gross motor, and social-emotional development. The umbilical cord blood lead concentration <5.0 μg/dL was also not associated with the BSID-III scores. The mother's regular intake of calcium supplements during the antenatal period was significantly associated with a lower umbilical cord blood lead level (p-value 0.031).
Conclusion
The data suggest that newborn umbilical cord blood lead concentration 0.5–10.5 μg/dL has a negative association with early gross motor development during infancy.
This study was conducted to monitor lead poisoning, if any, in pregnant women of Meerut City, a town of Northern India. The parameters selected included urinary concentration of lead and 𝛿-aminolevulinic acid. Further, whole body oxidative stress caused by environmental lead exposure has also been determined through urinary concentration of thiobarbituric acid Reactive Substances (TBARS). Present results show that lead concentration in pregnant women (26-30 years) was higher (52±0.01 µg/dL) than younger (20-25 years) (40±0.01 µg/dL) and older (31-40 years) (43±0.01 µg/dL) women. Further, highest concentration of 𝛿-aminolevulinic acid in urine (2.60±0.55 mg/l) was also recorded in the pregnant women aged between 26-30 years. Women in the age group of 20-25 years and consuming non-vegetarian diet showed comparatively higher values for TBARS (5.56±0.6 µM). Higher concentration of lead in the urine samples of pregnant women than non-pregnant women is attributed to calcium stress and its increased release from bones during pregnancy. It is concluded that pregnant women of north India and their growing fetuses are more vulnerable to environmental lead poisoning
Objectives: To determine the concentrations of blood lead (PbB) in pregnant women in the slums of Lucknow, north India.
Methods: Of the 203 designated municipal slums in Lucknow, 70 were randomly selected for study and a cohort of 500 pregnant women was enrolled. Each participant was interviewed with questions on possible sources of exposure to lead, surrogates of nutritional status were measured, and PbB was measured.
Results: The mean PbB was 14.3 micrograms/dl and 19.2% of women had PbB > or = 20 micrograms/dl. PbB was not associated with age, height, weight, gestation, or history of abortions, although higher PbB was associated with higher parity. Women living inner city neighbourhoods near heavy vehicular traffic had PbB 2.2 micrograms/dl higher (95% confidence interval (95% CI) 0.8 to 3.6) than those living in other neighbourhoods. The PbB was not associated with reported use of piped water or the presence of paint in homes, and increasing PbB was unexpectedly associated with decreasing use of eye cosmetic “surma” and the duration of gestation.
Conclusions: The high PbB found in this population raises concern about fetal development and points to the urgent need to reduce exposure to lead.
To determine the concentrations of blood lead (PbB) in pregnant women in the slums of Lucknow, north India.
Methods-Of the 203 designated municipal slums in Lucknow, 70 were randomly selected for study and a cohort of 500 pregnant women was enrolled. Each participant was interviewed with questions on possible sources of exposure to lead, surrogates of nutritional status were measured, and PbB was measured.
Results-The mean PbB was 14*3 ug/dl and 19*2% of women had PbB > 20 pgldl. PbB was not associated with age, height, weight, gestation, or history of abortions, although higher PbB was associated with higher parity. Women living in inner city neighbourhoods near heavy vehicular traffic had PbB 2*2 pg/dl higher (95% confidence interval (95% CI) 0’8 to 3.6) than those living in other neighbourhoods. The PbB was not associated with reported use of piped water or the presence of paint in homes, and increasing PbB was unexpectedly associated with decreasing use of the eye cosmetic “surma” and the duration of gestation.
Conclusions-The high PbB found in this population raises concern about fetal development and points to the urgent need to reduce exposure to lead.
Lead exposure in children contributes to 600,000 new cases of intellectual disabilities every year with maximum occurrence in developing countries. Currently limited information is available on the blood lead level (BLL) in children of India. The aim was to estimate BLL in the school going children of local population of Jodhpur. Methods: Four hundred twenty-six primary school children of government and private schools participated in this cross-sectional study. Information regarding possible lead exposure was collected. BLL was estimated on Lead Care II analyser (Magellan Diagnostics, USA). Results: The mean and median BLL were 4.25 ± 1.75 μg/dL (<3.3–22.6 μg/dL) and 3.5 μg/dL (Inter Quartile Range 0.9). BLL was higher in children of illiterate mothers, those residing near dense traffic areas, urban regions and studying in government schools of urban regions. Conclusions: BLL in children residing in Jodhpur is much higher in comparison to western counterparts. Screening and awareness programs regarding potential sources of lead exposure can help in improving BLL.
Objectives: Lead is one of the most toxic heavy metal prevalent in the environment, which affects almost all major organs including heart, brain, intestines, kidneys as well as reproductive organs. It has been known that serum iron deficiency is associated with increased serum lead levels as lead is a particularly pernicious element to iron metabolism. Lead is also known to freely cross the placenta too; hence, this study was planned to determine any association between antenatal iron deficiency anemia (IDA), raised blood lead levels (BPb), and adverse pregnancy outcomes.
Materials and methods: This was an observational study done on 99 antenatal women with IDA and 41 nonanemic antenatal women. Lead levels were assessed in these 140 antenatal women and they were followed for adverse pregnancy outcomes. Chi-square test was used to find a difference in quantitative variables and Pearson’s correlation test was used to assess association between BPb and hemoglobin levels.
Results: We found that in 11 out of 99 (11.11%) women with IDA, BPb levels were high as compared to high BPb levels in only 1 out of 41 (2.4%) women without IDA and the high BPb levels ranged from 4 μg/dl-16.9 μg/dl with a mean BPb of 8.1 μg/dl. The difference in BPb among anemic and nonanemic antenatal women was significant (P < 0.05) and there was a negative dose effect relationship between BPb levels and hemoglobin levels. This difference in antenatal outcomes among women with and without high BPb levels was also significant with increased incidence of pre-eclampsia, FGR, and preterm deliveries in women with raised BPb levels. The incidence of NICU admission was also higher in the neonates of mothers with high BPb levels.
Conclusions: We propose screening of high-risk women based on their social, occupational, environmental, and personal factors, with serum lead levels in the preconception period itself. All public and personal measures must be taken to reduce lead consumption and exposure in the preconception and antenatal period.
Lead can cause significant biological and neurologic damage, even at small concentrations, and young children are at higher risk. Informal recycling of lead batteries and lead-based workshops/industries have increased the burden of lead toxicity in developing countries, including India. Many informal recycling lead battery workshops have been established by the local people of Patna, Bihar as self-employment opportunities. However, most of the residents are not aware of the risk factors associated with lead poisoning.
Objectives. The present pilot study aimed to assess blood lead levels (BLLs) and hemoglobin levels among children aged between 3 to 12 years in the settlement of Karmalichak near Patna, India.
Materials and Methods. Children residing near the informal lead battery manufacturing unit were selected for BLL assessment. A total of 41 children were enrolled in the questionnairebased survey.
Results. All the children in the present study had detectable lead concentrations in their blood. Only 9% of the studied children had a BLL ≤5 μg/dl, while 91% children had a BLL above >5 μg/dl.
Conclusions. The present study carried out in children of Karmalichak region of Patna, India was an attempt to better understand the problem of lead toxicity, describe the epidemiology of its adverse effects, identify sources and routes of exposure, illustrate the clinical effects and develop strategies of prevention so that remedial measures may be taken by government agencies and regulatory bodies. In view of the high lead levels in children in the study area, attempts are being made to develop strategies for future prevention by relocating the informal battery recycling workshops from the area. Moreover, parents have been advised to increase nutritional supplementation of children by providing calcium-, iron- and zinc-rich foods, including milk and vegetables.
In this study, we evaluated the blood lead levels of pregnant women and their birth outcomes attending an Indian tertiary care teaching hospital, those who were not exposed to any lead-associated industry or shops.
Blood samples from 104 mothers during the 1st trimester, 90 mothers during 3rd trimester, and from the umbilical cord were collected. Self-administered questionnaires were used to collect information on demographics, medical history, and concerns linked to pregnancy. Following acid digestion, the levels of lead in whole blood were determined by an atomic absorption spectrometer. The DNA damage in high blood lead-concentrated pregnant women was evaluated by comet assay methods.
Among 194 blood samples of pregnant women, 31 (15.98%) samples revealed ≥5 μg/dL blood lead levels. High lead concentration (≥5 µg/dL) in 1st trimester pregnant women, end of 3rd trimester and cord blood were detected 20.19%, 11.11% and 1.11% respectively. The mean blood lead levels in 1st trimester, 3rd trimester, and cord blood were 3.88 ± 3.19, 2.66 ± 1.82, and 1.53 ± 1.06 mg/dL, respectively. The blood lead concentrations were significantly higher in the 1st trimester of pregnancy than in the 3rd trimester of pregnancy (P < 0.0017). A positive correlation between maternal and infant blood lead levels was revealed (P < 0.0001). When the comet assay was used to assess the genotoxic consequences of elevated blood lead levels during pregnancy, higher amounts of DNA damage were found in the samples (P < 0.01).
In this descriptive study, there was a significant amount of lead transferred from mother to baby through the placenta. All mothers were not exposed to lead-associated industry and most were housewives. This article may be viewed as an eye-opener for understanding the blood lead concentration during pregnancy to avoid abnormal birth outcomes. To minimize exposure to environmental lead, all possible measures should be undertaken.
While metal pollution and distribution in soil are well documented for many countries, the situation is more serious in developing countries because of the rapid increase in industrialization and urbanization during last decades. Although it is well documented in developed countries, data about substantial metal pollution in Indian soil, especially in eastern Ganges alluvial plain (GAP), are limited. In this study, eight different blocks of Patna district located in eastern GAP were selected to investigate the contamination, accumulation, and sources of metals in surface soil considering different land use types. Additionally, human health risk assessment was estimated to mark the potential carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic effect of metals in soil. The concentration of all metals (except Pb) in soil was below the Indian standard limit of the potential toxic element for agricultural soil. Pb was the most abundant in soil, followed by Zn and Cu, and accounted for 52, 33 and 8% of the total metal. In terms of land use types, roadside soil detected higher concentrations of all metals, followed by park/grassland soil. Principal component analysis results indicated traffic pollution and industrial emissions are the major sources of heavy metals in soil. This was further confirmed by strong inter-correlation of heavy metals (Cd, Cr, Ni, Cu and Pb). Human health risk assessment results indicated ingestion via soil as the primary pathway of heavy metal exposure to both adults and children population. The estimated hazard index was highest for Pb, suggesting significant non-carcinogenic effect to both adults and children population. The children were more prone to the non-carcinogenic effect of Pb than adults. However, relatively low cancer risk value estimated for all metals suggested non-significant carcinogenic risk in the soil.
Lead exposure has previously been associated with intellectual impairment in children in a number of international studies. In India, it has been reported that nearly half of the children have elevated blood lead levels (BLLs). However, little is known about risk factors for these elevated BLLs.
Methods: We conducted a retrospective cross-sectional analysis of data from the Indian National Family Health Survey, a population-based study conducted in 1998-1999. We assessed potential correlates of BLLs in 1,081 children who were < 3 years of age and living in Mumbai or Delhi, India. We examined factors such as age, sex, religion, caste, mother's education, standard of living, breast-feeding, and weight/height percentile.
Results: Most children (76%) had BLLs between 5 and 20 ug/dL. Age, standard of living, weight/height percentile, and total number of children ever born to the mother were significandy associated with BLLs (log transformed) in multivariate regression models. Compared with children < 3 months of age, children 4?11 and 12-23 month of age had 84 and 146% higher BLLs, respectively (p < 0.001). A low standard of living correlated with a 32.3% increase in BLLs (p = 0.02). Children greater than the 95th percentile for their weight/height had 31% (p = 0.03) higher BLLs compared with those who were below the 5th percentile for their weight/height.
Conclusions: Our study found various factors correlated with elevated BLLs in children. The correlation between greater than the 95th percentile weight/height and higher BLL may reflect an impact of lead exposure on body habitus. Our study may help in targeting susceptible populations and identifying correctable factors for elevated BLLs in Mumbai and Delhi.
